South Africa: Reintegration into Civilian Life of Ex-Combatants

By: Guy Lamb, Senior researcher, Centre for Conflict Resolution, University of Cape Town, South Africa.

This article is a summary of a research report on the reintegration into civilian life of former members of MK and APLA that was undertaken by the Centre for Conflict Resolution in collaboration with the Department of Defence. The report was compiled by Mafole Mokalobe, Lephophotho Mashike, Guy Lamb and Prof. Jacklyn Cock.

In the early to mid-1990s, the parties responsible for negotiating South Africa’s future were faced with the problem of how to deal with a variety of armed forces, namely Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK), the Azanian People’s Liberation Army (APLA), the former homeland armed forces and the South African Defence Force (SADF), all of which had the potential to destabilise the country. A two-fold strategy was eventually agreed upon. Firstly, a new representative national armed force would be created, which became known as the South African National Defence Force (SANDF) and which would consist of soldiers from all the above-mentioned armed forces. Secondly, thousands of combatants would be demobilised and reintegrated into civilian life.

The majority of these demobilised combatants were black Africans from MK and APLA. Many had no choice but to return to impoverished communities where opportunities for employment were severely limited. Some of these individuals were provided with a demobilisation gratuity, while others went home with nothing more than the shirts on their backs.

It has been almost a decade since this demobilisation and reintegration process was initiated. However, accurate information on how ex-combatants from MK and APLA have made the transition from military to civilian life does not exist. Hence, the Centre for Conflict Resolution in partnership with the South African Department of Defence undertook an in-depth study to ascertain the quality of life and socio-economic needs of previously demobilised combatants who were members of MK and APLA. This article is a summary of the findings from the final research report.

A total of 410 ex-combatants in all nine of South Africa’s provinces were interviewed, 88 percent were men and 12 percent women. 84 percent of the respondents claimed that they had served with MK, while 14 percent indicated that they had been APLA combatants. Two percent did not specify the liberation army to which they belonged.

Findings
Just over half the interviewees are not married, more than a third are married, while less than five percent are widowed and divorced respectively. 77 percent of respondents have at least one child. Close to 60 percent of respondents do not have a matric certificate (Standard ten or Grade 12). This is a serious barrier to entry into the formal job market, which generally discriminates against individuals who have not finished high school. 26 percent have standard ten, while five percent have standard ten and a diploma, and two percent have a postgraduate degree or diploma.

Approximately 80 percent of the ex-combatants that were interviewed are younger than 50, with 60 percent being 40 years of age or younger. Hence, most of the respondents are still economically active. However, 66 percent of respondents are unemployed, while close to two-thirds have been looking for employment for four years or more. Many survive by depending on family members to provide them with money, food and shelter, or engage in ad hoc informal sector activities such as hawking. The majority of unemployed respondents rely on financial and material support from family and friends. Many of these ex-combatants are supported by their elderly parents or grandparents, who either work as domestic workers/labourers or are pensioners. Nine percent are directly dependent on some form of pension or government grant. Only 16 percent are involved in income generating projects, such as wage/salary employment or are entrepreneurs, while a very small minority engage in volunteer work or are students.

Close to 40 percent have their own accommodation, but many of these homes are in fact shacks in informal settlements, with some being in the backyards of their parents’ or relatives’ houses. Approximately 40 percent live with their parents or relatives, and the remainder live in rented accommodation.

Just more than a third of the respondents indicated that they suffer from psychological problems. However, those who were interviewed never referred to the term ‘Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder’ (PTSD), but rather used different names to refer to the condition, and some of the symptoms they identify are similar to those of PTSD. A number of respondents indicated that they abuse alcohol regularly. Of this number, many claimed that they did this in an attempt to forget about past traumatic events. None of the respondents experiencing psychological problems have received treatment and/or counselling for their problems.

68 percent indicated that their families were supportive of them. However, eleven percent of the respondents claimed that relations with their families became negative following their return to their original communities after a short period of time, while four percent reported that their families had completely rejected them. In both cases, combatants consistently cited their inability to generate income as the major contributing factor to this state of affairs.

However, of those ex-combatants who have been rejected by their families, many indicated that they have found their community, or at least fellow ex-combatants, to be accommodating. One ex-combatant remarked that his fellow ex-MK combatants “are the only family I have”. In other cases, ex-combatants are accepted by their families but are regarded as worthless by members of the community. In extreme cases, some ex-combatants report that they find both the family and the community to be less accommodating than fellow ex-combatants.

More than half of the respondents (53 percent) indicated that they meet with other ex-combatants on a daily basis. This “meeting” usually entails the sharing of a cigarette or some food, but there are also weekly and monthly gatherings in which ex-combatants discuss developments regarding political, social and economic issues. Information is shared about possible jobs and debates are held on strategies to alleviate poverty.

This is an indication that informal support structures exist among ex-combatants. In fact, 68 percent of respondents reported that, if possible, they try and help “comrades in need”. In addition, many indicated that they are more comfortable with requesting help from “comrades” than from their own families.

Most (83 percent) respondents belong to community and/or political organisations, 75 percent claim to be active in community/political organisations. Participation in these organisations ranges from simply being a dedicated member of an organisation to holding leadership positions. Leadership positions range from holding the position of a chairperson at a street committee level to being a chairperson of an ANC or PAC branch office. Close to 60 percent of respondents reported that they are members of religious organisations, with approximately 80 percent indicating that they are actively involved in the activities of these religious bodies. Examples include secretaries of church youth groups, preachers, and members of church financial committees. Some of the female respondents reported that they are members of a church women’s league.

Respondents indicated that they had different reasons for belonging to these organisations. In some cases ex-combatants become involved so as to remain busy because they are unable to secure employment. Others claim that they are motivated out of a sense of civic duty.

Many of the respondents are actively involved in ANC/PAC structures. This is because many ex-combatants literally grew up within either the ANC or PAC in exile, where their basic needs, and those of their families, were catered for. However, this was a ‘double-edged sword’, which created, what a staff member at the national office of MKMVA called, a “dependency syndrome”, where individuals lose the ability to fend for themselves, and become entirely dependent on the party for their survival (telephone interview with a staff member at MKMVA National Office, 13 November 2002).

This culture of dependency has resulted in a lack of self-motivation for many of the respondents to actively seek employment and improve their standard of living. They tend to wait for others to assist them rather than taking the initiative themselves. Many ex-combatants feel strongly that the government must provide them with employment, housing and financial support.

Many respondents are dissatisfied with the ANC leadership’s lack of interest in their plight, but they appear to be emasculated as they have been unable to lobby the ANC to provide them with poverty relief and employment. Some have even had to resort to public protests to air their grievances. Some MK ex-combatants (who still regard themselves as soldiers), however, remain loyal to the ANC and state they are prepared to take up arms to defend South Africa’s democracy and the ANC should it come under attack from “counter-revolutionary forces”.

In conclusion, many former combatants have been unsuccessful in effectively reintegrating into civilian society, and consequently further targeted support for these individuals is required. Attempts to successfully reintegrate ex-combatants into civilian life lie in addressing both their short- and long-term needs by designing and implementing insightful and comprehensive reintegration programmes that focus on assisting ex-combatants to become productive members of society. However, for any reintegration programme to be successful, there needs to be strong political will on the part of government, extensive consultation with ex-combatants and affected communities, and the provision of the necessary funds and technical expertise .

Selected topical literature
Barrell, H., MK. The ANC’s Armed Struggle. London: Penguin Books, 1990.

Colletta, N., M. Kostner, M. and I. Wiederhofer, Case Studies in War-to-Peace Transition. The Demobilisation and Reintegration of Ex-combatants in Ethiopia, Namibia and Uganda. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 1996.

Creative Associates International, Tool Category C: Military Measures 7. Integration/ Restructuring of Military Forces. www.caii-dc.com/ghai/toolbox7.htm.

Gear, S., “Wishing us Away: Challenges Facing Ex-Combatants in the New South Africa”. In Violence and Transition Series, vol. 8, 2002.

Kingma, K. (ed.), Demobilization in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Developments and Security Impacts. Houndmills: MacMillan, 2000.

Kingma, K. and N. Pauwels (eds), War Force to Work Force: Global Perspectives on Demobilisation and Reintegration. Baden-Baden: Nomos Verlags-gesellschaft, 2000.

Liebenberg, I. and M. Roefs, “Demobilisation and its Aftermath: Economic Reinsertion of South Africa’s Demobilised Military Personnel.” In ISS Monograph Series, no. 61, 2001.

Lodge, T., “Soldiers of the Storm: A Profile of the Azanian People’s Liberation Army”. In J. Cilliers and M. Reichardt (eds), About Turn: the Transformation of the South African Military and Intelligence. Halfway House: IDP, 1995.

Mashike, L., Beyond the Armed Struggle: A Sociological Profile of ex-MK Soldiers. Braamfontein: Group for Environmental Monitoring, 1999.

Mokalobe, M., Demobilisation and Reintegration of Ex- Combatants in South Africa. Braamfontein: GEM, 1999.

Motumi, T. and P. Mckenzie, “After the War: Demobilisation in South Africa”. In J. Cock and P. McKenzie (eds), From Defence to Development. Redirecting Military Resources in South Africa. Cape Town: David Philip, 1998.

Shaw, M., “Negotiating Defence for a New South Africa”. In J. Cilliers (ed.), Dismissed. Demobilisation and Reintegration of Former Combatants in Africa. Halfway House: Institute for Defence Policy, 1995.